EN ESSAY AFRICA RECONSTRUCTION.

Letter to Letter message electoral. The Reform program By angel Bashile.
ESSAY. Coailiton party for the economical and social liberty of Africans around the World.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Afro-American.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Afro-European.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Afro-Canadiense.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Africaine.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Afro-Asiatic.
Essay. Sense du patriotisme Liberal Afro-congolosai.


The core democratic value I will be focusing on in my report will be equality Thought reform.
Equality means that every individual is created the same, every individual shall receive the same treatment, and every individual shall receive equal opportunities. This is a main area of focus in Africa Continent.

STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMEN PROGRAMS

What factors can explain the widespread application of SAP throughout the developing world?.
What were the central components of these programs and what is the evidence of their effect?.
3.Is the general failure of SAP explained best in terms of the weakness of their assumptions or the inability of the recipient countries to embrace them wholeheartedly?.

1.In more than 30 years after the first oil crisis of 1973, economic progress in much of the developing world has been very poor. With some notable exceptions - for example Botswana, Mauritius, Thailand, Indonesia and of course the East Asian "tigers" - growth was negligible or even negative in many cases. Overall, between 1965 and 1990, the average annual rate of growth of GNP per capita was negative in many African countries, and also in Jamaica, Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela.

Conditions created by the new global competition in industrial goods and later in financial services became increasingly incompatible with the theories that had previously dominated economic thinking, that is Keynesianism in the centres and anti-dependancy import substitution in the periphery. By the same token, these conditions helped resurrect older economic theories. The remarkable comeback of the neoclassical approach to development was hastened by its fit with the new economic realities and by the vigorous actions of its supporters to further that convergence. 

Largely championed by the Reagan administration and Margaret Thatcher's government, the neoliberal principles that shape SAPs gained prominence in the IFIs in the 1980s. The neoliberal philosophy of economic development revived the old precepts of economic liberalism, which hold that an unregulated free market and private sector are the engines for unrestricted growth, the benefits of which will trickle down from the owners of capital to the entire population. Plant closings and relocations abroad may have been anathema to advocates of a national "industrial policy", but were perfectly compatible with a theory that regarded protected work forces as a constraint on market competition.

Removal of state subsidies and tariff barriers may have adversely affected the standard of living of workers and the growth prospects of certain industrial sectors in the periphery, but they were needed medicine in order to get the prices right.

Western development institutions, notably the IMF, the World Bank and their major members attributed poor records to the prevailing policies and strategies of development which had been pursued in the post-war era. The major flaw, they argued, had been the degree of state involvement in economic affair and the curtailment of free markets and liberal trade regimes. Reducing the economic power and role of the state therefore became a central strategic objective. 

The means adopted by the West for achieving this in the 1980s was to develop a new breed of policy-based loans, "structural adjustment lending" as it came to be known, which involved a high degree of conditionality.

2.Structural Adjustment is the generic term used to describe a package of measures which the IMF, the World Bank and individual Western aid donors persuaded many developing countries to adopt during the 1980s, in return for a new wave of loans. As Adrian Leftwich notes, the aim of adjustment was to shutter the dominant post-war, state-led development paradigm and overcome the problems of developmental stagnation by promoting open and free competitive market economies, supervised by minimal states. Between 1980 and 1990, World Bank structural adjustment loans increased from seven to 187 in sixty countries.

SAPs usually include several basic components geared toward reducing inflation, promoting export, meeting debt-payment schedules, and decreasing budget deficits. They generally entail sever reductions in government spending and employment, higher interest rates, currency devaluation, lower real wages, sale of government enterprises, reduced tariffs, and liberalization of foreign investment regulations.


REFORM PROGRAM

Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from terrorists
1-Dual nationality agains terrorisme-
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from corruption
2-Dual nationality agains corruption
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from segurity    
3-Dual nationality agains genocide
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from resources  
4-Dual nationality agains Explotaion
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from Education
5- Obligatory Education Career
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from Sports      
6- Sport Sponsoring Programs for Athletes
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality from Economics
7- Transparent taxation & Inflaction value
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality From Industry  
8- Force Sustainable Investents in Textil
Reformn on removing Dual-nationality From Diversity  
9- Les^sence Food population Africa Brand
Reformn on removing International Impact Investments
10- Social found for the benefit of people
Reformn on removing Dual Digitalization                      
11- Les^sence Design Thinking HUB
Reformn on removing Dual Arts, Music and culture      
12- Ghetto Beats Educational Programs
Reformn on removing Dual Communication                  
13- Re:boot Prioriy Communication Agency
Reformn on removing Dual School Structure                
14- Elements Social School Point
Reformn on removing Dual Equality Structure              
15- Equal Rights opportunities Equal Laws

AFRICA RECONSTRUCTION

Abstract

Many see it as a primarily economic phenomenon, involving the increasing interaction, or integration, of national economic systems through the growth in international trade, investment and capital flows.


However, one can also point to a rapid increase in cross-border social, cultural and technological exchange as part of the phenomenon of globalisation.
The sociologist, Anthony Giddens, defines globalisation as a decoupling of space and time, emphasising that with instantaneous communications, knowledge and culture can be shared around the world simultaneously.


A Dutch academic who maintains a good website on globalisation, Ruud Lubbers, defines it as a process in which geographic distance becomes a factor of diminishing importance in the establishment and maintenance of cross border economic, political and socio-cultural relations.


Left critics of globalisation define the word quite differently, presenting it as worldwide drive toward a globalised economic system dominated by supranational corporate trade and banking institutions that are not accountable to democratic processes or national governments.


Globalisation is an undeniably capitalist process. It has taken off as a concept in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and of socialism as a viable alternate form of economic organisation.


Globalisation is the rapid increase in cross-border economic, social, technological exchange under conditions of capitalism.

It attempts to characterize globalization, and its effects on poverty, the environment, gender, culture, and political structure and dynamics. David Held and Anthony McGrew write in their entry for Oxford Companion to Politics that globalisation can be conceived as a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions, expressed in transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction and power.

When did globalisation begin?.
There is no agreed starting point, but understanding of globalisation is helped by considering the following.

The first great expansion of European capitalism took place in the 16th century, following the first circumnavigation of the earth in 1519 to 1521.

There was a big expansion in world trade and investment in the late nineteenth century. This was brought to a halt by the First World War and the bout of anti-free trade protectionism that led to the Great Depression in 1930. Some see this period as an interruption to the process of globalisation commenced in the late 19th century.

A sense that the world was united was generated by the establishment of the International Date Line and world time zones, together with the near global adoption of the Gregorian calendar between 1875 and 1925. During that period, international standards were also agreed for telegraphy and signalling.

The end of the Second World War brought another great expansion of capitalism with the development of multinational companies interested in producing and selling in the domestic markets of nations around the world. The emancipation of colonies created a new world order. Air travel and the development of international communications enhanced the progress of international business.

The fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union ended the cold war between the forces of capitalism and socialism with capitalism triumphant. The development of the internet made possible the organisation of business on a global scale with greater facility than ever before.

Who are the players?.Pro-globalisation.
International organisations:.
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was established in 1995 to administer the rules of international trade agreed to by its 123 member countries. These rules have been ratified by the parliaments of all members.

The key difference between the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which it replaced, is that the WTO is a permanent organisation with the judicial powers to rule on international trade disputes.

The WTO also covers trade in services, whereas GATT only covered trade in goods.
The WTO's rules make it hard for a country to favour their own industry over imports from other countries. Also, the WTO rules do not allow a country to favour the imports of one country over those from another.

The WTO argues that the growth of trade between countries increases the wealth of everyone. Trade allows the production of goods and services by those who are most efficient, thus maximising their availability at the best price.

The growth of trade is helped by the lowering of barriers, such as tariffs and import quotas, which is the object of WTO agreements.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in the wake of the World War II in 1946 to:.
promote international cooperation on finance, .
encourage stability in exchange rates and orderly systems for exchanging money between countries .providing temporary assistance for countries suffering balance of payments problems .The IMF frequently seeks institutional reform in the countries to which it provides temporary financial assistance. Like the WTO, the IMF believes that world prosperity is enhanced by greater exchange between nations and that this is made possible by everyone agreeing to abide by rules. The IMF has 182 member countries.

The World Bank provides loans to poor countries for development projects. The bank provides loans for investment projects, such as water and sanitation, natural resource management education and health. It also lends for what it calls adjustment projects, which are to support governments undertaking policy reforms, such as improved public sector management.

Established at the conclusion of the Second World War, the United Nations has become a promoter of globalisation, arguing that individual states have a dual role with responsibilities to both their own citizens and to the world society as a whole. The United Nations says the broader global responsibility requires international institutions.

It supports the case for reform of international institutions, including its own Security Council, to make them more representative. The UN has sponsored a Global Compact to establish and promote a shared set of core values in the areas of labour standards, human rights and environmental practices between the UN and the business community .

The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) develops economic and social policy for its 29 members, which include the countries of North America, Western Europe (including Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland) and Japan, Korea, Australia and New Zealand. It provides economic arguments for globalisation, such as data demonstrating the positive contribution made by multinational corporations to economic development. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is a permanent intergovernmental body of the UN that aims to maximise the trade investment and development opportunities of developing economies and to assist their efforts to integrate into the world economy .

The World Economic Forum (WEF) is a private not-for-profit foundation that operates conferences for business, political, intellectual and other society leaders. The WEF holds an annual conference in the Swiss town of Davos, where it is based, and also holds regional conferences around the world. It has no decision-making power, but many of the world's business and political leaders discuss issues of importance at WEF meetings.

Internet and telecommunications industry.One of the driving forces of globalisation is the advance of telecommunications in general and the internet in particular. Representative organisations regard the spread of communications technology as a benefit without qualification. For example, the International Telecommunications Union sees globalisation as the innate human desire for the integration of individuals in villages and cities and the integration of people of all races and backgrounds into nations.

Other organisations are concerned that the free spread of communications technology proceeds without impediment of censorship or any other official constraint.
Environmentalist groups, such as Friends of the Earth, The Sierra Club and Greenpeace argue that globalisation harms the environment. .

The World Wildlife Fund has maintained an anti-WTO stance for over a decade. It wants the WTO to change its rules so that trade sanctions can be used to enforce environmental goals.
The Centre for International Environmental Law based in Geneva works closely with Greenpeace and the WWF.

In general they blame global corporations for global warming, the depletion of natural resources, the production of harmful chemicals and the destruction of organic agriculture.
They have particular criticisms of global investment, which they argue takes advantage of the lack of regulation in poorer developing countries. Hence, global companies may locate polluting industries in poor countries, log tropical forests, or develop mines with inadequate controls.

They oppose the production, use and global trade in toxic chemicals, nuclear materials and other products of which they do not approve, such as genetically modified foods, or endangered wildlife, including fish.
They oppose the existing rules of the World Trade Organisation, which do not allow countries to ban imports of goods just because their production may have damaged the environment in the country of origin.
Environmental groups argue that WTO rules are unacceptable from the environmental perspective and they want the rules amended to give them the right to present arguments in its appeals court.

They share a concern that the global organisations such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank are not doing enough to alleviate poverty and, indeed, may be contributing to it. They argue that poor countries should have their debts to international banks excused.
Some are critical of the World Trade Organisation saying that its rules favour companies from wealthy countries. They argue that by making it difficult for countries to protect their own industries with discriminatory tariffs, it is hard for poor countries to build domestic industries.

Left critics of capitalism.

The World Social Forum emerged as a counterpoint to the World Economic Forum. It represents a broad range of interests and civil society groups with the ambitious aim of rebuilding the dreams of the left in today's globalised world.
Marxist organisations see globalisation as the spread of capitalism, in which the labor of the poor is exploited for the benefit of the rich .

Business organisations threatened by international competition.
Many companies in rich countries oppose globalisation because they fear that competition from imports will cost them money. Such companies are typically found in industries such as textiles and footwear. These are among the few industries in which poor countries can provide effective competition.Many business organisations that may support the world trade system in general will oppose specific measures to reduce tariffs, which is one of the principal means for building global trade.

Unions in rich countries.
Some trade unions oppose globalisation, saying that it leads to a lowering of wage and workplace standards. The argument generally presented is that globalisation encourages the trade in goods produced in countries which do not allow unions to defend their workers' rights. They undercut the goods produced in countries where unions do defend unions' rights. This leads to a race to the bottom' as the markets are won by those with the lowest standards.

Cultural nationalists.
Some regard globalisation as the spread of American culture and influence. This theme emerges in the speeches of the Malaysian Prime Minister, Mohammed Mahathir. .
Perspectives on the anti-globalsation players:
In the December 2001 edition of Prospect magazine John Lloyd argues that global protestors attack the only institutions - the IMF, World Bank and WTO - which can be the foundations of a fairer world order. But concedes that the protestors have at least galvanised reformist western politicians to produce a more coherent response to the legitimate grievances of the developing world.
Why is there global inequality,.
and is it getting worse?.

Pro globalisation.
There is mounting evidence that inequalities in global income and poverty are decreasing and that globalisation has contributed to this turnaround. For example, the World Bank notes that China's opening to world trade has brought it growth in income from $1460 a head in 1980 to $4120 by 1999. In 1980, American's earned 12.5 times as much as the Chinese, per capita. By 1999, they were only earning 7.4 times as much. The gap between rich and poor is also shrinking with most nations in Asia and Latin America. The countries that are getting poorer are those that are not open to world trade, notably many nations in Africa. (Care is required when statistics are used. See the note on statistics at the bottom of this page.) .

Poor countries that have lowered their tariff barriers have gained increases in employment and national income because labour and capital shifts from import-competing industries to expanding, newly competitive export industries. In addition to providing jobs, companies moving to developing countries often export higher wages and working conditions compared with those in domestic companies operating in the country. While wages are often lower in developing countries than those in developed countries they reflect lower levels of education and productivity. The experience in countries like Korea is that as countries develop their wage levels rise and the focus shifts from labour intensive to more capital and knowledge intensive industries.

FORCE FOR AFRICA
ESSAY Keywords . #Moventment2TheFuture #thatisforce #forceforafrica #RDC #debatesofcongo
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